Over the last decade, mushroom production has become one of the most actively developing fields of agriculture in Turkey. About 45% of the total mushroom production and >50% of the total compost production occurs in the Antalya-Korkuteli district (southwestern Turkey). Major insect pests of mushroom production are cecidomyiid, sciarid and phorid flies with Megaselia halterata (Wood) (Diptera: Phoridae) being the most common species in the district. In the present study, two commercial microbial products [a bacterial larvicide, Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis Berliner (Bti) commercially available as Gnatrol^® (Valent USA Corp., Walnut Creek, CA), and an entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema feltiae (Filipjev) Wouts, Mracek, Gerdin & Bedding commercially available as Entonem^® (Koppert Biological Systems, The Netherlands)] and spinosad, a biologically-derived insecticide that is commercially available as Laser^® (Dow AgroSciences, Zionsville Road, IN), were evaluated for control of M. halterata in 3 successive mushroom-growing periods. These products were compared with a control treated with water and a conventional chemical insecticide control (chlorpyrifos-ethyl). Treatments were targeted at larvae as soil drenches; treatment efficacy was evaluated by assessing adult emergence and larval damage. Treatments with the microbial products had significantly lower numbers of emerging adults than those observed in water-treated control. There were no significant differences in adult emergence among the 3 microbial products and the chlorpyrifos-ethyl control over the 3 growing periods. Each of the microbial products reduced the incidence of fruit damage by the larvae and resulted in significantly lower damage rates when compared with the watertreated control. These results suggest that these microbial products can be used as alternatives to conventional chemicals in controlling M. halterata on mushroom.

A voluntary phase-out of the manufacture of dicofol, the principal miticide used for chemical control of pecan leaf scorch mite, Eotetranychus hicoriae McGregor (Acari: Tetranychidae), and the recent discovery and evaluation of western predatory mite, Galendromus occidentalis (Nesbitt), as a biological control of pecan leaf scorch mite have led to the registration of the selective miticide, bifenazate, as a possible replacement for dicofol for control of pecan leaf scorch mites in pecan orchards in the US. The impact of bifenazate on the pecan leaf scorch mite and phytoseiid predatory mites was studied in field trials conducted from 2003–2006. Bifenazate was an effective miticide and had the additional benefit over dicofol of conserving phytoseiid mites. The lowest effective concentration as a foliar spray application was 0.3 g actual bifenazate/l water. The effective residual activity of bifenazate at 0.3 g active ingredient/I applied at 1400 l/ha was 2–6 wks depending on the year and location. Bifenazate conserves a portion of the phytoseiid mite population as phytoseiid abundances were similar in the nontreated and bifenazate-treated trees for up to 4 wks after treatment. Treatment of pecan trees with bifenazate plus the release of phytoseiid mites was a more effective method for pecan leaf scorch mite control than the application of bifenazate alone. Among 8 chemical control treatment alternatives to dicofol, pecan trees treated with bifenazate had similar predatory mite abundance to the non-treated control.

Tyrosinase is a copper enzyme and plays a key role in normal insect development. We studied the in vitro inhibitory effects of selected insecticides and allelochemicals on the diphenolase activity of tyrosinase in Micromelalopha troglodyta (Graeser) (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae). Two pyrethriods (cyfluthrin and deltamethrin) and 3 other insecticides (hexaflumuron, abamectin and imidacloprid) were the least inhibitory, whereas 5 organophosphates (triazophos, malathion, chlorpyrifos, omethoate and profenofos), 1 carbamate (methomyl), 4 pyrethriods (fenpropathrin, beta-cypermethrin, bifenthrin and lambda-cyhalothrin), 1 organochlorine (endosulfan), 2 allelochemicals (tannic acid and 2-tridecanone) and 4 other insecticides (emamectin benzoate, fipronil, acetamiprid and pyridaben) were moderately inhibitory. Three chemicals (quercetin, phenyl thiourea and phoxim) were the most potent inhibitors of the enzymes among all compounds tested and inhibited the diphenolase activity of tyrosinase in vitro in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, phenyl thiourea, phoxim and quercetin showed neither typical competitive nor noncompetitive binding to the substrate, with Ki of 0.13 μM, 49.30 μM and 37.71 μM, respectively.

Transgenic lines of soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merrill, expressing a synthetic cry 1A gene from Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner (Bt), were evaluated in replicated field trials in 1999–2002 for suppression of lepidopteran pests and the resultant crop injury. Velvetbean caterpillar, Anticarsia gemmatalis Hübner, soybean looper, Pseudoplusia includens (Walker), and green cloverworm, Hypena scabra (F.), population densities were essentially absent throughout the growing season in each year of the study in each of the Bt lines evaluated compared with moderate (5–10 larvae per row-m) to heavy (15–20 larvae per row-m) populations in the isogenic and parental lines serving as soybean controls. Significant A. gemmatalis larval population reductions were observed in the Bt entries compared with the nonBt entries in each year of this study. The P. includens larval densities were significantly lower in Bt entries in the 3 yrs of this study when population densities were abundant, whereas H. scabra were lower in the Bt lines in the 2 yrs of this study when this species was present. Cumulative defoliation in nonBt soybean entries exceeded 95% in some years compared with 0.0–1.6% in the transgenic lines containing Bt. Yields of the transgenic soybean lines were equal to or higher than the non Bt lines examined in each year of this study. It appears that these Bt transgenic soybeans provide superior season-long control of the common lepidopteran pests on soybeans in the southern U.S., resulting in reduced defoliation levels and potentially higher yields compared with equivalent cultivars that lack the Bt trait.

The natural parasitism rate and the release efficiency of the egg parasitoid, Trichogramma evanescens Westwood (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), in the biological control of the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), was determined in field plots of maize in the Eastern Mediterranean, Turkey. Parasitoids were released in maize plots as parasitized eggs of laboratory-reared Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). The parasitized eggs (n = 150,000) were released twice in a 10-d interval at the beginning of the oviposition period of the third generation of O. nubilalis in the second crop of maize in released treatment (without insecticides). Other treatments were an untreated control (without wasps and without insecticides) and an insecticide treatment (Lambda-Cyhalothrin, 50 g I⁻¹ 300 ml ha⁻¹; without wasps). Ostrinia nubilalis egg masses, larvae and plant damage were regularly assessed until crop harvest. Parasitization of egg masses by T. evanescens was determined in each sample. The mean (± SD) percentage of parasitized O. nubilalis eggs was 86.2 ±l11.6 (± SD)%. Compared with the control treatment, the number of plants damaged by European corn borer larvae in the release treatment was reduced by 96%, whereas the number of larvae was reduced by 95.2%. Average grain yield was 8,800 ± 15.2 kg ha⁻¹ (380.0 ± 1.6 g per 1000 grain weight) in the Trichogramma release treatment without insecticide, 7,000 ± 28.8 kg ha⁻¹ (314.8 ± 2.9 g per 1000 grain weight) in the control treatment, and 8,533 ± 8.8 kg ha⁻¹ (360.4 ± 8.5 g per 1000 grain weight) in the insecticide treatment. The grain yield and 1000 grain weight differences differed significantly (P ≤ 0.01) between the untreated control and the other two treatments (released treatment and insecticide treatment). Natural parasitization of O. nubilalis eggs by T. evanescens as observed in control and insecticide-treated plots was 30.2%. These results indicate that biological control of O. nubilalis with T. evanescens should be developed as an integral control method in integrated management programs for maize grown in Turkey.

Herpetomonas muscarum Leidy (Kinetoplastida: Trypanosomatidae) is a protistan symbiont that colonizes the hindgut of the housefly, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae). The temporal location and transition of this symbiont within the fly has been understudied. In this study, the progression of Herpetomonas within the mid and hindgut with reference to the peritrophic matrix (PM) was examined microscopically and was compared with the fate of a bacterium (GFP-tagged E. coli). The housefly PM is a double-layered, open-ended physical barrier that separates ingested substances from the midgut epithelium and terminates near the hindgut. In the midgut, bacteria were confined within the inner PM, lysed by digestive enzymes, and compacted into fecal pellets within 12 h. In contrast, Herpetomonas initially resided within the inner PM, but many protists moved to the interPM space within a few hours. Additionally, protists rapidly progressed to the open end of the PM at the midgut/hindgut junction, in as little as 4–6 h postingestion, entering the ectoperitrophic space and attaching to the hindgut epithelium. Unlike bacteria, Herpetomonas demonstrated a hastened progression to the hindgut and avoided being immobilized, lysed and enclosed in a fecal pellet by the inner PM. Thus, whereas flies do not have permanent bacterial “flora” (because bacteria cannot escape the PM and are trapped and lysed), this protist has found a way to circumvent this fate and establish as a permanent hindgut symbiont. These results have applicable relevance to human-parasitic trypanosomatids that use stercorarian (posterior station) transmission from vectoring insects, such as Trypanosoma cruzi Chagas in triatomine bugs.

Imported fire ants (Solenopsis spp.; Hymenoptera: Formicidae) occupy 54 counties (~5.4 million ha) in Tennessee. To better understand the fire ant species distribution in Tennessee, the state was divided into 16.1 × 16.1 km grids, and a single colony was sampled for cuticular hydrocarbon and venom alkaloid analyses within each grid. A total of 387 samples was processed from which 9 (2.3%), 167 (43.2%), and 211 (54.5%) were identified as red (Solenopsis invicta Buren), black (Solenopsis richteri Forel), or hybrid (S. invicta × S. richteri) imported fire ants, respectively. The S. invicta was only found near metropolitan Nashville in Davidson and Williamson counties and at one site in Decatur Co. All samples east of Franklin Co. were identified as hybrids. Tennessee counties west of Lincoln were predominantly S. richteri (86.5%) as opposed to hybrid (13.0%) and S. invicta (0.5%). The exception was Hardin Co., which was predominantly hybrid. Counties containing both hybrid and S. richteri (all in the middle and western part of the state) included Bedford, Decatur, Franklin, Giles, Hardeman, Hardin, Haywood, Lawrence, Lincoln, Marshall, Maury, McNairy, Perry, and Wayne. The S. invicta samples collected from one Williamson Co. site were determined to be polygyne and infected with the Solenopsis invicta virus (genotype SINV-1 A). This was the first detection of polygyne imported fire ant in Tennessee. The SINV-1 A virus was also a new find at the time of detection, but has been previously reported. The survey results are being used to direct current and future biological control efforts against imported fire ants in Tennessee.

Greater (Galleria mellonella L.) and lesser wax moth (Achroia grisella F.) larval feeding can cause significant damage in active honey bee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies and stored equipment. This damage may lead to significant material and financial losses. Traditional control methods use toxic chemicals that may leave residues in wax and honey and are potentially hazardous to bees and humans. In this study, we evaluated the use of a product (B401^®; Vita [Europe] Ltd., Basingstoke, UK) that contains Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner, a bacterium that is not harmful to bees or humans. The main objectives of our research were to determine if B401 could be successfully applied to the midrib of foundation during its production and if combs constructed on the foundation were protected from wax moth damage. B401 significantly reduced the comb damage score that was given to combs on a scale from 0–10, with 0 equal to no damage and 10 equal to complete damage (B401 = 1.70 ± 0.39 and 0.45 ±0.16, control = 8.55 ± 0.32 and 3.80 ± 0.71) and the proportion of larvae surviving at 6 wk (B401 = 0.69 = 0.07, control = 0.95 ± 0.04). Yet, as administered in our study, the product did not eliminate all wax moth damage to combs.

The male genitalia, including the pygophore, parameres, and inflated aedeagus, and the female terminalia, are compared between Mecidea major Sailer and M. minor Ruckes (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae). These structures are markedly different between these species, particularly the inflated aedeagus. In M. major, the penial lobes tof the aedeagus diverge in the basal 1/3, converge distally, with each lobe subquadrate apically. In M. minor, the penial lobes diverge midway to the apex, weakly converge distally, with each lobe rounded apically. We suggest the same 3 structures should be examined in the remaining 15 species of Mecidea to determine if the taxonomic status of each of these species is supported by the results.